What professions are becoming a thing of the past? Outdated professions. Is it possible to predict something?

By studying the lists of professions in demand in a given period of human history, you can learn a lot about society: people’s preferences, technical equipment, it is even possible to draw conclusions about the sanitary condition of cities. Certain specialties arise in the wake of the demands of their time, but then just as quickly disappear. This review tells a story about some professions, the memory of which now remains only in photographs.

Seller of time

alarm clock

Pied Piper

Many professions have disappeared literally within the lifetime of one generation of people. Our parents could also see them.

Shoe shiner

Street knife sharpener

Stenographer

If we recall the history of this profession, its beginning dates back to Ancient Egypt, where the speeches of the pharaohs were recorded using conventional symbols. In the 1st century BC, the first system of characters used for cursive writing was invented. Since the end of the 16th century, shorthand has been rapidly developing and becoming a full-fledged professional institute with its own educational institutions, specialized printed publications, and regularly held international congresses.

In our country in 2018, this profession seems to have ended its existence. From April 1, the positions of “Stenographer-Stenographer”, “Stenographer” and “Typing Office Manager” are excluded from the Qualification Directory of Positions for Managers, Specialists and Other Employees.

Travel agent - many people are already planning their trips themselves.
- The cashier in the supermarket will be replaced by a “smart cart”; such concepts already exist.
- Call center operator - automatic systems with recorded voice information and today do a good job.
- Ticket reader - reading scanners can replace a living person in this case.
- Postman - this profession should have disappeared a couple of years ago with the advent of e-mail, but it turned out to be unexpectedly tenacious. In any case, the work of the postal service will have to change a lot in the near future.
- Chauffeur – autopilots for cars and buses are already beginning to be actively used in big cities.

We will find out in a couple of decades whether these predictions will come true.

If you want to dive into the past, it's worth seeing.

The lightning pace of the industrial and technological revolution can not only delight futurists with previously unavailable opportunities, but also directly influence the labor market. In addition to the fact that they will give rise to a lot of new, very, very exotic professions, they will also contribute to the disappearance of a number of professions that are quite relevant today into the past. Time is fleeting, and along with such obsolete professions as elevator operators, watchmen and stenographers, competencies that appeared quite recently, back in the 90s, will disappear into oblivion.

As sad as it may be, time takes its toll.

According to the calculations of specialists from Skolkovo, by 2030, the domestic labor market will get rid of 57 professions that exist quite successfully today, and will be replaced by 186 new specialties, the names of many of which may shock you. What is it worth, for example, a bioethicist, a startup mentor, or, in general, a trend watcher/foresighter?! So that you are prepared for the new reality of the labor market, Careerist.ru decided to figure out what is happening with professions, and who should choose a new specialty.

15 years of changes

The Atlas of New Professions is a directory prepared by Skolkovo specialists back in 2015, in which they tried to reflect promising and, conversely, dying industries and professions for the next 15-20 years. According to the authors, it should help to understand which industries will actively develop, what technologies and products will be born in them, what specialists will be required, and which will cease to be relevant. As for the latter, among them scientists have identified 57 professions. It is noteworthy that among them you can find both intellectual labor specialties and blue-collar professions. Among specialties based on complex pre-training, computers will primarily replace specialists in transcription, translation, document management, budgeting, archives, notary databases, analytical documents and other specialists whose work is related to data systematization.

It is noteworthy that these are far from the most difficult professions that are threatened by computers. Among them were also dispatchers and medical specialists in diagnosing diseases. As for real estate agents and travel agency workers, everything is natural here - the development of online services encourages people to order travel services and buy real estate on their own - after all, these are just intermediaries generating added value.

Except them, The number of unclaimed professionals by 2030 will include economists, accountants, lawyers and managers. Already today, there is an oversupply of managers and lawyers in the labor market, especially among the junior level - ambitious young people who want to get a prestigious profession enroll en masse in specialized humanitarian universities, after which they successfully join the ranks of the unemployed. Soon, lawyers will become irrelevant in general – today. A similar fate awaits accountants - there are more than 1.1 million of them in the civil service alone, and they cost 1 trillion rubles. In this regard, replacing them with new document management programs. Already today they are the most popular among Moscow's unemployed.

In addition to these professions, scientists from Skolkovo identify logisticians, system administrators, credit managers, bank employees, set installers and other specialists whose work today requires, first of all, intellectual work.

"Scribblers" are under threat

Serious controversy, especially in the media, was caused by the fact that the specialties of journalist and reporter were added to the endangered professions. According to the compilers of the Atlas of Occupations, which has been actively discussed by the US Department of Labor since 2007, media employees should replace regular social networks. The fact is that today news is spread by ordinary users, and the previously working model, configured to hunt for sensations, will gradually become a thing of the past. And with it, the need for reporters and journalists who will report from the scene will disappear. In the future, in order not to end up “without a hole,” the “shark of the pen” must be a universal soldier of journalism - he must not only be able to write, but conduct radio broadcasts, be able to make original films, write good books, and create other media products - otherwise it will simply not be in demand.

A similar fate awaits proofreaders - as software and artificial intelligence develop, they will be replaced by text editors that will edit the text with high quality. It is worth paying special attention to commercial advertising writers – copywriters. Once in-demand specialists are increasingly complaining about the market being overcrowded with poorly educated, self-taught scribblers, as a result of which the quality of texts, and therefore fees, are falling. In Skolkovo, for example, they are sure that today it is easier to train secretaries in this craft than to keep an expensive specialist in writing articles on staff.

Among other “dying” professions are consultants - the development of the Internet makes it possible to abandon consultants on specific issues, replacing them with online assistants. The development of navigation systems will make it possible to do away with navigators, although now they are used exclusively in motor sports. New software will also replace testers, and web-based graphics technology will replace doubles and stuntmen in films. Museum staff will also be under threat - Skolkovo experts have classified exhibit curators, ticket takers, and tour guides as endangered professions. They, like representatives of many other blue-collar professions, will have to be replaced by robots. By the way, about working professions.

“Dying” blue-collar professions

Despite the fact that blue-collar professions are traditionally in demand on the labor market, 25 of them were included by Skolkovo scientists on the list of those that will disappear in the next 15 years. And if the watchman, elevator operator and postman do not raise any special questions, then there are positions that, it would seem, have never been threatened. For example, call center operators. Apparently, scientists predict the automation of the process of communication with clients, which will be performed by robotic chat bots. No less doubtful is the disappearance of seamstresses. Of course, today there are automated sewing workshops where machines do the work, but it is quite difficult to believe that people will completely abandon individual designer items.

On the contrary, what has long been dictated by practice is the abandonment of traffic police inspectors.

Yes, cameras programmed to catch violators often make many mistakes, but they do not take bribes or try to attribute a dubious traffic violation. And if they try, it’s with good intentions, and not in order to receive a bribe! In addition to them, the Atlas of New Professions predicts “aging” for janitors, concrete mixer workers, foremen, dry cleaners and even machinists. There are also professions where the use of robotics will protect people’s lives. For example, miners, drillers and miners will disappear, which, however, will not only save employers from hundreds of casualties in production, but will also reduce the cost of the mining process.

Among others are security guards, porters, trainers, waiters, parking attendants, couriers, cooks and representatives of other professions whose work, or at least part of it, can be automated by machines. Of course, there is no need to be afraid of this. Technology will not yet be able to fully replace humans. Flexibility of mind, creativity, ingenuity, originality of ideas, artistry and other human prerogatives will remain a priority for people in the labor market for the next 15-20 years - machines are still capable of performing only automatic functions, such as swinging a shovel or forging and stamping.

In the end, even if machines can replace creativity, the individual human touch will always remain valuable. A striking example of this is souvenirs made with human warmth or clothes with the inscription Hand made. There is no doubt that The more functions we transfer to machines, the more we will be able to value human labor, be it food production, determining a diagnosis, drawing up a statement of claim or writing an opinion article. Another question is that there is no need to expect mass demand for such services.

Which specialties have already become history forever, which are on the verge of extinction, and which are just emerging - this is what this article is about.

Why are some professions disappearing?

In the 21st century, society is developing rapidly. At the same time, the appearance of settlements changes, new cities emerge and existing ones grow rapidly, and a modern way of life is born. In huge production workshops, human labor has been replaced by automatic robots, some types of activities have been transformed beyond recognition compared to past centuries and even past decades, others are completely disappearing into oblivion. In this regard, the concept of “disappearing professions” appeared. We will talk about them in detail below.

Along with the changing reality, many profession names are consigned to history. Some simply transform their name into another designation, but there are also those that completely cease to exist. You can no longer meet their representatives on the street; information can be found in historical archives, and seen only in a movie or theater production.

Professions that don't exist

Disappearing professions cease to be relevant. Due to the rapid development of science and technology, some specialties are losing demand. Machines replace human hands and handle almost all crafts much faster and more efficiently. Automation of many processes significantly reduces the cost of production and at the same time increases the productivity of any process. Serious negative consequences of this include loss of jobs, increased unemployment, and, as a consequence, impoverishment of the population and increase in the world population. Therefore, today the state is making a lot of efforts to ensure that everyone can master a profession that is relevant to current reality. It is important for everyone to learn and gain skills in those areas that humanity needs.

An excursion into the past

Let's remember the old professions that lost their popularity and remained only on the pages of history. The names of some of them are known, others sound alien and completely unfamiliar.

TOP professions that have ceased to exist:

• Daguerreotypists. They created the first portrait photographs. There were no cameras then, but only silver plates on which the very first photographs were taken. They were replaced by photographers who clicked film. But this is a completely different type of work, therefore, we can safely say that daguerreotypists have already become part of history.
• Chimney sweeps. They regularly went out in search of dirty chimneys. Not a single family could do without their efforts and labor. The modern generation knows about this specialty only thanks to myths and fairy tales that have survived to this day. Chimney sweeps were held in high esteem because chimneys and fireplaces prevented fires.
• Pied Pipers. Surely many have never heard such profession names. But in fact, this was a very important and dangerous position; these people could be compared to superheroes. They saved entire cities from the invasion of rodents, which were real carriers of dirt and disease. It was rats that brought the plague, which in the 16th century destroyed half of Europe. Today, many countries strictly monitor order, preventing the spread of sewage and garbage. If necessary, clean public areas regularly using strong poisons and other pest control products. In the past, tens of thousands of rats were killed by hand.

Continuation of the list

• Stonebreakers. Hard labor during which people died. Workers crushed rocks used for construction around the clock. Nowadays, stone extraction is carried out by specialized equipment controlled by humans.
• Lamplighters. Every evening they went to work with long sticks, lit street lamps and kept the city illuminated. Of course, it is hard to imagine that electricity once did not exist.
• Telephone operators. They existed quite recently, but today, in the “world of the mobile phone,” such old professions have ceased to exist. And once upon a time, in order to hear the desired subscriber, it was necessary to contact the telephone operator, who redirected the signal to the desired point.
• Typists. Women in all printing establishments spent hours typing texts, hammering like a machine gun on the keys of a typewriter. It's hard to imagine that anyone today works on this outdated device.
• Counters. At the workplace of these women there were only abacus and paper with a pen for notes. In every company, the accountant had a lady reporting to her, who knew how to add up numbers on bone accounts in seconds. After all, just a few decades ago there was no calculator, and complex calculations were made on abacuses. Only women were hired, as they approached it more responsibly and were particularly persevering.
• Coachman- cab driver, drove a horse-drawn carriage. But with the advent of the automobile, people stopped moving in strollers and phaetons, which is why the need for this specialty disappeared.
• Profession shoe shiner was once in great demand. Dirty shoes are bad manners, so all high-ranking and simply neat men regularly stood at the chairs around which young boys with brushes and shoe polish were spinning.

Little-Known Vanished Professions

The list of disappeared professions includes those that are well known to many. And there were also little-known ones: beacon makers, balagols, coopers, komashniks.

In the 15th-18th centuries, the position of kisser was common. These people mainly monitored the replenishment of the treasury, the payment of capitation and quitrents by peasants (why not the tax inspectorate?), participated in trials and police supervision. Upon taking office, they swore an oath of honesty and kissed the cross.

Construction could not be done without digging, pouring, transporting and slabs. Today their work is performed by excavators, cranes and other equipment.

There were many other specialties without which it was difficult to imagine society in the past.

Professions that are disappearing

Experts regularly keep records of those on the verge of extinction. Vanishing professions are known to everyone today. The super-fast progress of technology and the development of the Internet are creating new jobs, but at the same time we have to say goodbye to the usual crafts.

Here are examples of professions that will cease to exist in the near future. These However, as a consolation to many, we can say that the old ones are being replaced by new activities, the list of which is constantly updated.

Vanishing professions:

• Packer. Enterprises will no longer need manual packaging; people will soon be replaced by robots. Machines don't require days off, they don't need sick days, and they don't argue with their bosses. Many companies and factories are already switching to full automation of production.
• Conductor. Modern public transport is equipped with a turnstile. It is installed in front of the entrance. To use the bus, you need to insert a card or insert the required bill. It turns out that there is no need for a person who catches “hares” and sells travel tickets.
• Postman, cashier.
• Librarian.
• Journalist. They will be replaced by numerous copywriters.
• Call center operator.
• Watchman, concierge, elevator operator, waiter.
• Logistician
• Miner.
• Seamstress, weaver, potter.
• Accountant, economist.
• Architect.

Reducing the list of village artisans

Many rural professions are disappearing. There are fewer and fewer mowers, field workers, fruit pickers, blacksmiths and shepherds. Their work is performed by combines, cultivators, and garden equipment. There are practically no horses on farms anymore, so there is no work for blacksmiths. And cows are increasingly seen only on large farms, so shepherds are disappearing. The process of reducing rural processes is especially pronounced in economically developed capitalist countries, while in developing countries manual labor in the fields is still in demand.

Simple and understandable specialties are closely intertwined with the world of high-tech technologies. Science and electronics are rapidly gaining momentum, and many countries simply cannot keep up with the progress. This is probably why in some parts of our country there are professions that have long since become history in Europe.

One of the consequences of the collapse of the USSR

Separately, it is worth noting the professions of the USSR that ceased to exist with the collapse of the country.

Everyone studied and strived to take their place in the party nomenklatura. Even the most outstanding instructor of the district committee of the CPSU sounded proud and respectable. Not to mention the secretaries of the district committee and others. The pioneer leaders who guided the pioneers on the right path and organized their leisure time also disappeared. Many professions in the USSR disappeared simultaneously with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics itself.

Indirect consequences of the disappearance of many professions

Just 50 years ago, careers were linear, calibrated and stable. In his youth, a person chose a profession to his liking, received the appropriate education, and spent his entire life doing one thing. Today the picture is completely different. In the age of hyper-fast technology, this model no longer works. A person has to study all his life, mastering new, usually narrow, specialties.

High competition, fear of unemployment and constant mental stress - all this negatively affects human health, his psyche, giving rise to neuroses, depression and mental disorders. As a result of constant employment, insufficient attention is paid to family and children, and simple human connections are lost. This, in turn, gives rise to juvenile crime, which very quickly develops into “adult” crime.

One of the consequences of the rapidly changing reality and the disappearance of many professions is an increase in unemployment, impoverishment of the population, and a drop in the birth rate, which in a chain reaction gives rise to social tension.

This is the kind of “black” relationship that a New York analytical agency has built.

Professions of the future

Dying professions will certainly be replaced by new ones that meet modern realities. Every year, leading educational institutions undergo certification in order to obtain permission to teach new crafts. And they are directly related to robots, nanotechnology and computers.

Here is a list of specialties that are likely to be needed in the future:

• Cyber ​​Janitor- will restore order on the Internet.
• City caretaker- Responsible for greening the city.
• Master Printer- 3D printing specialist.
• Personal Chronicler- will establish all your roots and create a family history.
• Microflora specialist.
• Drone operator.

Today these are just theoretical conclusions. But once upon a time, being an astronaut was considered a fantastic profession.

The rapid development of new technologies leads not only to the emergence of many new professions, often very exotic ones (such as a molecular nutritionist or a “smart home” designer), but also to the gradual withering away of existing specialties.

Moreover, along with long-outdated professions, such as stenographers, elevator operators or shoe shiners, those that appeared only a few decades ago are also becoming a thing of the past.

Izvestia looked into what is happening to professions and what should be done so as not to unexpectedly find yourself in a craft that has become a thing of the past.

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The power of machines

Back in 2015, the Skolkovo School of Management released its own “Atlas of New Professions” - a detailed guide to professions that should be completely obsolete by 2030, and those that by this time, on the contrary, will become the most popular (the latter, however, are in the directory almost three times more - 186 versus 57 “dying”).

Among the specialties that require complex preliminary training, the so-called intellectual ones, those related to the systematization of data were primarily under attack: it is precisely these employees that computers will be able to replace most quickly. Estimators, transcribers, translators, document specialists and archivists, notaries, analysts, as well as government service operators may soon become a thing of the past.

The “invasion of machines” also threatens much more complex professions - the list of those leaving already includes the professions of a diagnostician, a dispatcher, as well as the already familiar travel agents and realtors, the need for which is disappearing with the advent of Internet services that allow people to directly contact hotels , buy air tickets, and home sellers and buyers can communicate with each other. This list largely coincides with the lists presented in 2012 by CNN and The Huffington Post.

In addition, economists, managers and accountants are traditionally at risk. This fall, Ministry of Finance representative Tatyana Nesterenko also included accountants among the disappearing professions; the Moscow City News Agency, in particular, wrote about this, and the Moscow Employment Service at the end of the summer named it one of the most popular among the capital's unemployed - along with the professions of economists , drivers and managers, the M24 portal reported with reference to the press service of Rostrud.

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Vanishing Romance

More romantic professions are also under threat of extinction - the development of navigators, according to researchers, over the next 10-15 years may eliminate the profession of navigator, new programs will replace test pilots, and improved computer graphics capabilities will make stuntmen and stunt doubles unnecessary.

New old professions

Not all professions immediately become victims of the development of new technologies - some die out after specialists of a broader profile enter the market. Moreover, in some cases this happens almost immediately after the profession acquires official status and is included in university programs. Thus, a representative of the Yandex company, speaking at the “Management of the Future” conference in St. Petersburg in April last year, cited the example of the profession of a webmaster: it became fashionable only a couple of decades ago, but, having appeared in the programs of higher educational institutions, almost immediately disappeared from the real labor market.

The same professions include copywriters, especially those who are involved in filling out websites: the salaries of these once fashionable specialists are falling, and, according to some experts, their duties will soon be easier for secretaries to train.

Feather sharks are under threat

A similar fate may await media workers over the next couple of decades - both the compilers of the “Atlas of New Professions” and most other researchers speak about this: for example, the US Department of Labor predicted the extinction of the profession back in 2007. First of all, this will affect “classical” reporters, literary editors and proofreaders.

If the latter are supplanted by text editors, then journalists are threatened by social networks: news is spread with the help of ordinary users, and the usual scheme of work of media structures, built on the hunt for sensations, will soon begin to die out. And along with it, according to researchers, the need for “old school” journalists will disappear.

A journalist of the future, in order to avoid unemployment, must be able to perform a variety of tasks - including recording a radio program himself, making a film or writing a worthwhile book, Ivan Zasursky, president of the Association of Internet Publishers, told RBC, commenting on the situation in the market of creative professions.

Museums and mines will be given over to robots

If the Atlas of New Professions is anything to go by, we can find entire industries in which robots will eventually take over. This, in particular, applies to museums: the list of endangered professions includes tour guides, ticket takers, and caretakers of museum halls. Or to mine workers: it is assumed that machines will soon replace miners, miners and drillers in their workplaces. This, however, will not only save on production, but also avoid human casualties in the event of an emergency.

Traffic police inspector as an endangered species

Although, according to the capital's employment service, representatives of blue-collar professions are traditionally in high demand among employers, many of them are also classified as endangered. Among mid- and low-skilled employees, “obsolescence” threatens janitors, postmen, security guards, watchmen, concrete workers, foremen and even freight train drivers.

Experts also name seamstresses among those whose profession may soon disappear, but it is difficult to believe that people will completely abandon custom-tailored clothing. After all, this is not the first time this profession has experienced a technological revolution.

In addition, traffic police inspectors are also threatened with extinction - it is assumed that they should be completely replaced on the roads by modern cameras and monitoring systems.

The benefits of human factors

However, there is no need to panic - experts continue to believe that machines will not be able to completely replace people. In particular, those employees who are distinguished by flexibility of thinking (which machines will have to achieve for a long time) will continue to be in demand, are able to navigate large amounts of information and are ready to learn new skills throughout their lives. For example, people with an entrepreneurial mindset who can generate new ideas are likely to become more and more in demand, just as the demand for quality opinion journalism will continue.

Finally, the downside of the invasion of machines may be the growing need for an individual approach and human communication - which is why standardized dining rooms will not be able to compete, for example, with family restaurants, and the most professional audio guides will not be able to compete with tour guides who love their job. Therefore, it is possible that the more routine functions are transferred to robots, the more people will begin to appreciate the products of small enterprises and things made with their own hands. However, you shouldn’t expect that there will be massive demand for them.

Visual arts

Pre-revolutionary HR, or Forgotten professions on the canvases of Russian artists

The labor market does not stand still. Some professions are being corrected by technological progress, others are disappearing into oblivion. What occupations were in demand in past centuries? Ofenya, water carrier, orderly... We look at paintings by Russian painters.

Water carrier

Sergey Gribkov. Water carrier. 1873

If in a Russian village almost every yard had its own well dug, then in the city it was difficult to obtain water. In the central regions, the water in rivers and ponds was most often undrinkable, so the townspeople had to bring clean water. The delivery was carried out by a water carrier. To become one, you had to have a horse-drawn cart or two-wheeled cart and a large barrel. In St. Petersburg, the color of a barrel spoke about the quality of the water in it: water from canals was transported in green barrels, and drinking water in white barrels. Often the water carrier was accompanied by a dog: it notified residents of the arrival of the cart with a loud bark. In large cities, this profession persisted until the beginning of the 20th century, until centralized water supply appeared.

In 1873, the artist Sergei Gribkov captured the work of a water carrier in his painting. At that time, this profession was considered prestigious and, importantly, very profitable: this can be judged by the good quality of the worker’s clothing. Water carriers often took advantage of the fact that the townspeople had no choice, and charged them exorbitant prices.

Batman

Pavel Fedotov. Officer and orderly. 1850–1851

Orderlies were soldiers of the Russian army who were in permanent service under an officer as a servant. According to historians, the name is derived from the French de jour, which means “orderly, duty officer.” The orderly conveyed the officer's orders to his subordinates, cleaned his uniform and boots, and, if necessary, acted as a bodyguard. Under Peter I, not only commoners, but also people from a noble family served in this post. The latter, as a rule, carried out diplomatic and secret assignments of the tsar. This “profession” was abolished in 1881, but unofficially, orderlies existed during the Great Patriotic War. Their duties were performed by drivers.

Lamplighter

Leonid Solomatkin. Morning at the tavern. 1873

The profession of a lamplighter, in a more simplified form, existed in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome: even then, at night, the streets were illuminated with the help of oil lamps and torches. In Russia in the 19th century, retired military personnel were hired as lamplighters, who could work night and day. In an hour, they went around at least 50 lanterns: adjusting the wicks and pouring hemp oil. There was also theft. To stop this, they began to add turpentine to the oil, and later it was completely replaced with kerosene. With the advent of electric lights, the work became somewhat easier, although they were still turned on and off manually. Only after the 30s of the 20th century did an automatic mode for lighting lamps appear, and this once prestigious profession sank into oblivion. In some cities you can still find a lamplighter, although this is more an attempt to preserve traditions than a necessity.

In Leonid Solomatkin’s painting “Morning at the Tavern” you can see how the lamplighter, having climbed the ladder, goes about his business - putting out the candle. Each worker also had a long pole with which he lit and refilled the lanterns.

Saddler

Mikhail Klodt. Saddler. 1860s

Blinders were eyecups that blocked the horse's vision from the sides. This is where the word “blind-minded” comes from - this is the name given to people who are unable to accept other points of view. The element of harness gave the name to the whole profession. However, the master was engaged in the manufacture of all horse equipment: saddles, bridles, stirrups. Each harness had to be unique. The first saddlers existed in Ancient Rus', and now only rare specialists decorate thoroughbred horses for racing.

The painting by Mikhail Klodt shows a saddler at work. This craft was labor-intensive and required skilled skills. What it took to choose the right skin! It was also necessary to sew the belts and install rivets. Everything was done by hand using the simplest tools. Each artisan adhered to certain rules. For example, it was possible to bend arcs only during the summer sap flow, and dry them exclusively in the shade.

Cooper

Traditionally, wooden barrels are used for pickling cucumbers and aging wine. In the old days, they were made by a cooper. Widespread in Rus', this profession faded away in the 20th century. Previously, the number of professional coopers reached a thousand people in each province, but now there are only a few of them. Filling the barrels was extremely difficult. Suffice it to recall the episode from the book about Robinson Crusoe: on the island he tried to learn how to make barrels. I worked for several weeks, hammering together planks, but still couldn’t do anything worthwhile.

In the painting by Sergei Skachkov you can see a cooper at work. Using an ax and available carpentry tools, he fits wooden or iron hoops to the body. The planks should be knocked together so tightly that they do not allow water to pass through.